The Neurobiology of Motivation and Reward

This book was conceived many years ago as an abstract goal for a father-son team when the father was working in university administration and the son was just getting into the academic business. Eventually, the father returned to the laboratory, the son began to get his feet on the ground, and the goal became concrete. Now the work is finished, and our book enters the literature as, we hope, a valuable contribution to understanding the terribly complex and subtle problem of the neuro biology of motivated behaviors. We would also like the book to stand as a personal mark of a cooperative relationship between father and son. This special relationship between the authors gave us an extra dimension of pleasure in writing the book, and it would delight us if it gave anyone else an extra dimension of enjoyment from reading it. One thing we hope happens is that anyone or simply considering entering similar considering a similar partnership, of this book as encouragement. Such re fields, will take the existence lationships are highly satisfying if both parties take care to protect the partnership. When we actually sat down to write the book, we were humbled by the immense literature and the smallness of both our conceived space for putting it down and of our brains for processing all the information.

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1 Introduction.- The Scope and Use of this Book.- The Book's Structure.- The Book's Direction.- 2 A Brief History of Motivation and Reward Concepts.- Instincts and Taxes.- Hedonism.- Sensory Psychology and Physiology.- Temperament, Emotion, and Affect.- Reinforcement.- Regulatory Physiology.- Neurobiology.- The Concept of Motivation.- 3 Behavioral Aspects of Motivation and Reward.- Behavioral Concepts and Definitions.- Measurement of Motivation.- Acquired Motivation.- Non-Homeostatic Motivation.- Emergence of Motivated Behavior and Hedonic Responses in Phylogeny.- Affect and Hedonic Response.- Summary.- 4 Physiological Aspects of Motivation and Reward.- Brain States.- Neural Hierarchies.- Peripheral and Central-Neural Interactions.- Motor Control of Motivated Behavior.- Reward, Affect, and Hedonic Response.- Summary.- 5 The Measurement of Brain Stimulation Reward.- Background.- The Problem of ESB Reward Measurement.- Continuous Reinforcement Lever-Pressing.- The Input-Output Curve, Rate-Intensity, and Threshold.- The Variable Parameter in an Input-Output Curve.- Threshold and Half-Maximal Criterion.- A Discrete Trial Procedure.- The Reward Summation Function.- The Extinction Paradigm.- Autotitration or Set-Reset Method.- Post-Reinforcement Pause.- Response Strength Method.- Choice and Other Methods.- ESB Reward Psychophysics.- Summary.- 6 The Neuroanatomy of Brain-Stimulation Reward.- The Lateral Hypothalamus and Medial Forebrain Bundle: Many Possible Substrates.- What Is Activated by the Electrode?.- Psychophysics of ESB Reward: Refractory Periods.- Psychophysics: Linkage, Conduction Velocity, and Direction.- Psychophysics: Other Structural and Anatomical Properties.- Lesion Studies of ESB Reward.- The Descending Path Hypothesis.- Origin of the Descending Path.-Some Subtleties and the Termination of the Descending Path.- The Frontal Cortex: ESB Reward from Another Site.- Single Unit Recording.- Summary.- 7 Dopamine and ESB Reward.- Some Basic Facts.- Dopamine Brain Systems 162 ESB Reward and the Effects of Systemic Dopamine Blockade.- Improving Selectivity through Drug Choice or Brain Injection.- Food Reward and the Effects of Dopamine Blockade.- Lesion Studies.- Drug Self-Administration and Place Preference.- Opiates.- Some Models of Dopamine Function: Reward, Behavioral Activation, and Effort.- The Ventral Tegmental Area and the Nucleus Accumbens.- Whatever Happened to Norepinephrine?.- Conclusions.- 8 Overview.- Behavioral Phenomena Associated with ESB.- Approach-Withdrawal Function.- Hierarchical Organization.- Peripheral and Central-Neural Controls.- General Arousal Versus Specific Activation.- Localization of Function and Hierarchical Organization.- Nature-Nurture and Role of Experience.- Motivation and Phylogeny.- Motivation and Ontogeny.- Conclusions.- Future Outlook.- References.